a brief History T he fertile Nile Valley has supported human life for over 8,000 years. Stone Age settlers developed from hunters to farmers, growing barley and wheat crops that originated in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian script was also copied, but it developed into the first Egyptian written language. From the earliest days Egyptians recorded their activities on papyrus paper, helping us to piece together the pivotal moments in the great days of the Ancient Egyptian Empire. Ancient Egypt’s complicated annals are filled with massive communal building projects and great individuals traced through many millennia. Archaeologists are still debating about the exact chronology of certain Egyptian dynasties and individual rulers, however, general agreement exists on the division of history into set phases, giving a name to each. The Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic periods are followed by the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms with Intermediate periods in between. These are followed by the Late, Macedonian, and Ptolemaic periods until Egypt was absorbed into the Roman Empire in the first century a.d. The Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic Periods (5000–2780 b.c. ) For many years Egypt was not one kingdom but two —  Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. It was not until 3170 b.c. that King Narmer of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt. Around 3100 b.c. the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were unified under King Menes —  his crown was the first to depict the symbols of both kingdoms. He made his capital at Memphis in Lower Egypt (near present-day Cairo) and the first Dynasty was founded. The Old and Middle Kingdoms The Old Kingdom was established around 2780 b.c. and lasted more than five centuries. It heralded the first great phase of development in science and architecture; hieroglyphs were developed and the first great building phase took place. Rulers began to grow more powerful and looked for some way to prove their might both in life and in death. King Djoser of the Fourthth Dynasty was the first to attempt to build a large funerary monument to hold his mortal remains and protect the riches buried with him for his next life. The result is the step pyramid at Saqqara. Other rulers followed suit and by 2526 b.c. the design had been perfected and the world was graced by the Great Pyramid at Giza built for Khufu (or Cheops). Not long before this time, between 2575–2550 b.c. , King Kephren had the Sphinx erected in his honor at Giza. It was at this momentous time that the first mummifications began. Khufu’s son Redjedef, made a monumental change to Egyptian life when he introduced the solar deity Ra, or Re, into the Egyptian religion. Worship of Ra would grow to become one of the most important facets of Egyptian culture over the next 3,000 years. However, during the decisive years between 2140–2040 b.c. , a split occurred between the two Kingdoms when rival power bases arose in Heliopolis in Lower Egypt and Thebes (modern Luxor) in Upper Egypt. This is what archaeologists call the first intermediate period. The Karnak temple at Thebes was begun around 2134 b.c. , marking the city’s rise to prominence. The Middle Kingdom, 2040–1801 b.c. , commenced with Theban rulers of the 11th Dynasty attempting to extend their control, and Egypt was reunified under Mentuhotep II. His successors built a power base at Thebes, and started a cultural renaissance with wide-reaching effects on Egyptian art and archaeology. The local Theban god Amon became intertwined with Ra creating the deity Amon Ra and around 1800 b.c. , the female Osiris cult developed into a main deity. Thebes held onto power until the 12th Dynasty, when its first king, Amenemhet Iwho reigned between 1980–1951 b.c. established a capital near Memphis. However, he continued to give prominence to the Theban god Amon, ensuring that the worship spread across the Kingdom. But other rival peoples coveted the riches of Egypt and near 1600 b.c. , a people called the Hyskos invaded Lower Egypt from Libya, splitting the Kingdom in two and starting the second intermediate period. The New Kingdom (1540–1100 b.c.) Hyskos rule lasted less than 100 years. They were driven out of Lower Egypt by Ahmose I who founded the 18th Dynasty, ruling over a united Egypt from a capital at Thebes. The pharaohs of the 18th Dynasty instigated many important reforms. They reorganized the army and consolidated power in the hands of family members at the expense of feudal leaders. Artistically and culturally Egypt reached its zenith during the New Kingdom and many of the most renowned Pharaohs reigned during this time. The Valley of the Kings was also chosen as a new burial ground for the Pharaohs when Tuthmoses I (1504–1492 b.c. ) was entombed in a narrow valley across the river from the temple at Karnak. Throughout the 1400s (b.c. ) Karnak and Luxor temples were greatly expanded and several huge building projects took place on the west bank. However in 1356–1339 b.c. a new Pharaoh, Amenophis IV, decided to leave Thebes and, with his wife Nefertiti, created a new capital on a virgin site at Tell El Amarna to the north. He introduced a monotheistic cult around the one true god — Aten — and changed his name to Akhenaten (“He who pleases Aten. ” ). This sudden change brought chaos to Egypt and she lost international influence, but Akhenaten’s successor — his son, the young Tutankhamun — brought power back to Thebes and reinvested the priests of Amon Ra and his fellow gods with religious supremacy. Tutankhamun died in mysterious circumstances without an heir. His warrior successor, Ramses I, heralded the start of the 19th Dynasty to be followed by Seti I 1291–1279 b.c. who won back many of the lands lost during the Akhenaten years. The 60-year rule of Ramses II (1279–1212 b.c. ) was a great finale to the New Kingdom era. One of the most prolific builders in the history of Egypt ruled for over 60 years and supervised magnificent projects expanding Luxor and Karnak temples and creating the magnificent Abu Simbel. Some scholars now postulate that Ramses II was the Egyptian Pharoah of biblical fame who let the Jews leave his land for Israel. Following Ramses II, Ramses III built a vast mortuary complex at Medinet Habu but power was already slipping from royal hands into those of the exclusive and secretive priesthood known as the servants of Amun-Ra. In 1070 b.c. the country was split again and foreign powers began to overrun the borders. By 715 b.c. Egypt was already dominated by foreign power — the Assyrians — and also began increasing trade and diplomacy with the expanding Roman Empire. The Ptolemaic Period In 332 b.c. Alexander the Great occupied Egypt and appointed Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt and his Macedonian general, as governor. Then, after Alexander’s death in 323 b.c. , Cleomenes took control of the country under the name Ptolemy I. The new city of Alexandria, located on the Mediterranean coast, became the base for the Ptolemaic control of Egypt and the cultural capital of Europe, and Thebes finally lost its influence. However, the Ptolemies were responsible for building and refurbishing several important temples in Upper Egypt, including Denderah, Philae, and Edfu. They adopted Egyptian gods as their own and did much to prolong Egyptian culture rather than simply converting it to Greek. The Ptolemaic era came to an end with its most famous ruler, Queen Cleopatra. During her lifetime, 69–30 b.c. , the infamous queen attempted to link her land to Rome through her liaison with Julius Caesar. Their son Caesarean would have ruled over both countries, thus continuing the Egyptian blood line. However, events turned profoundly against Cleopatra when Caesar was suddenly killed and she fled back to Alexandria to commit suicide in 30 b.c. Egypt was reduced to a provincial status in the Empire, as it was ruled first from Rome and subsequently from Constantinople. The Arab Empire Egypt was caught up in the first wave of Moslem Arab expansion in the 630s (a.d. ), less than ten years after the death of the prophet Mohamed. His teachings were encapsulated in the Koran and they fired the,previously disparate Arab tribes to spread the word of Allah. Egypt became one of the most influential Arab states, especially when, in the mid-9th century, a more powerful Arab force — the Fatimids — swept across Egypt from the west. They established a capital called Al-Qahira — “the City of Victory” — known to the modern world as Cairo. Over the next two centuries, Cairo became a center of culture and learning that was unsurpassed in the Islamic world with the establishment of the renowned El-Azhar University and mosque. In 1169 the Fatimids were crushed by the armies of Saladin — already flush with victories in Palestine and Syria — who established the Ayyubid Dynasty and created the fortified citadel to protect Cairo. However Ayyubid control was weak and power was usurped by their Turkish slaves, called mamelukes, who succeeded in founding a dynasty that lasted from 1251 to 1517. In Cairo they built vast palaces and ornate mosques, and expanded the influence of the great Khan el-Khalili market to expand Egypt’s trading power. Mameluke power was taken by Ottoman Turks in 1517, but little changed on a day-to-day basis as the Turks preferred to use local people to control their more remote dominions. They appointed an overall governor, or Pasha, who then organized the country to his own liking with mameluke help. Egypt became a backwater, even more so as the Ottoman Empire went into chronic terminal decline in the 18th century, with a series of crises that local mamelukes were unable to control. As Ottoman control weakened, Egypt became a pawn in a larger game. In 1798 a young Napoleon Bonaparte, eager to curtail growing British power, arrived in Egypt and after a short and decisive battle claimed the country for France. He set about forming a ruling body, and sent scholars and artists out into the countryside to explore and record its ancient treasures — thus sparking the great interest in Egyptology among scholars in France and the rest of Western Europe. His stay was short-lived however; the British fleet were after him and inflicted a devastating defeat on the French Navy at the battle of Aboukir later the same year. Napoleon went home to claim ‘victory’ but he had to leave the bulk of his army behind. Meanwhile an Ottoman force had been dispatched from Istanbul to counter the French. They were led by Mohammed Ali, a brilliant intellect who, in the aftermath of the French withdrawal, asked to be appointed Pasha of Egypt. The Ottoman Sultan agreed to his request and he set about establishing his power base. In 1811 Mohamed organized a grand banquet and called all the notable mamelukes to attend. Once they were all at his compound he had them massacred — their influence had come to a sudden, bloody end. Mohammed Ali had a vision for his new domain. He admired western military tactics and set about modernizing the army and navy. Agriculture and commerce were brought up-to-date and cotton was introduced as a commercial crop. Cairo saw a rash of new building that expanded the city’s boundaries. The new ruler grew wealthy and powerful, twice declaring war on his sovereign and almost beating the sizeable but dissolute Ottoman army. Istanbul was forced to recognize this powerful thorn in its side as a semi-autonomous part of the empire, and granted hereditary status to the role of Pasha of Egypt. Later the title was upgraded to khedive, the equivalent of Viceroy. The House of Mohammed Ali, however, ultimately failed to live up to its founder’s great achievements, as the ruling body increasingly grew to be corrupt and recklessly irresponsible. The one great feat that was achieved during their sovereignty, though, was the creation of the Suez Canal, an engineering marvel of its day that opened with great aplomb in 1869. The Khedive Ismael had extravagant plans for numerous great works that were to be financed by Western European powers, but when he became stuck in a financial quagmire, they insisted on bringing in their own advisors to control key institutions. The British soon had an unassailable grip on Egyptian politics and commerce. The 20th Century As European power-brokering turned into World War I, Egypt became vital to the British, being close to the enemy Ottoman heartland, and allowing quick passage through the Suez Canal to her dominions in India, the Far East, Australia, and New Zealand. When the Ottoman Empire crumbled in the aftermath of the war, Egypt declared itself an independent kingdom, but real power remained in London. A strong independence party, the Wafd, gained political power during the 1920s and became a prominent force throughout the next few decades. In World War II Hitler and Mussolini recognized that the Suez Canal was vital to British plans, and Egypt — along with the rest of North Africa — became an important field of battle. Axis forces were at one point only 150 miles from Cairo but Allied soldiers finally gained the upper hand following the British victory at El Alemain in 1942, and Egypt remained firmly in British hands for the rest of the war. Post-war politics brought a new set of problems. The new Jewish state of Israel founded on land so recently Islamic Palestine sent shock waves through the Arab world and Egypt found itself at the center of a bloody defeat in 1948 when it stood up against its new neighbor. King Farouk, who had come to the throne in 1936, was seen as a playboy with a love of luxurious living. When he attempted to restore national pride by wresting the Suez Canal out of British hands he suffered an embarrassing diplomatic defeat and, at home, unrest turned to opposition. In June 1952 a group of high-ranking military officers declared a military coup. Led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, they drove Farouk into exile and nationalized the Suez Canal. Nasser was to rule for 17 years during which, with Soviet help, Egypt embarked on a huge modernization program. Chief among its projects was the Aswan High Dam, which provided hydroelectricity to the population and freed the country from the scourge of the annual river flood, bringing security to the highly populated Nile Delta. Anwar el-Sadat succeeded Nasser in 1970. He was not as charismatic as Nassar and, though he had a more moderate stance, became embroiled in several unsuccessful short wars with Israel that severely weakened the country and left the Sinai region in Israeli hands. Limited success in 1973 restored some national pride when the Sinai was returned, but Sadat was aware that his country could be bled dry if the conflict continued. In 1979 Egypt became the first Arab state to recognize the state of Israel — other Arab states were aghast and internal opposition to Sadat grew. In 1981 he was assassinated by an army officer while taking the salute at a military parade. Since then Hosny Mubarak has been Egypt’s president. He has worked hard to find a place for Egypt at the negotiation table, acting as a moderator and offering Cairo as a venue for Arab/Israeli peace talks throughout the 80s and 90s. Mubarak’s pragmatic approach has earned him many admirers, but also some enemies — not least among them, extremists within his own country. During the 1990s they made numerous attempts to de-stabilize his regime, finally resorting to attacking the mainstay of the Egyptian economy — tourism  — and several despicable attacks on foreign visitors resulted in over 60 deaths. A number of trials are said to have put the instigators in prison and security measures have been enhanced, but their actions did a great deal of damage from which Egypt will be slow to recover. Tourism numbers fell dramatically but are now rising again as visitors grow more confident. Meanwhile the vast majority of ordinary Egyptians, who offer a warm welcome to tourists, put their faith in Allah for an upturn in their economic fortunes.