separation_processes.tex

\documentclass[11pt,a4paper]{article}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
\usepackage{amsmath,amssymb}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{booktabs}
\usepackage{siunitx}
\usepackage{geometry}
\geometry{margin=1in}
\usepackage{pythontex}
\usepackage{hyperref}
\usepackage{float}

\title{Separation Processes\\Distillation and Absorption}
\author{Chemical Engineering Research Group}
\date{\today}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
Design of separation operations including McCabe-Thiele distillation analysis, minimum reflux ratio calculations, flash distillation, and membrane separation. Computational methods determine theoretical stages, operating lines, and separation efficiency for binary distillation columns and membrane systems.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}

This report presents computational analysis of separation processes, focusing on binary distillation column design using the McCabe-Thiele graphical method. We analyze equilibrium curves, operating lines, minimum reflux conditions, and theoretical stage requirements for separating binary mixtures. Additional analyses include flash distillation calculations using the Rachford-Rice equation and membrane separation selectivity.

\begin{pycode}

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from scipy.integrate import odeint
from scipy.optimize import fsolve
from scipy import stats
plt.rcParams['text.usetex'] = True
plt.rcParams['font.family'] = 'serif'

# Distillation parameters
alpha = 2.5  # relative volatility (benzene-toluene)
xD = 0.95    # distillate composition
xF = 0.50    # feed composition
xB = 0.05    # bottoms composition
q = 1.0      # saturated liquid feed
R = 2.5      # reflux ratio

\end{pycode}

\section{McCabe-Thiele Distillation Analysis}

The McCabe-Thiele method provides a graphical solution for binary distillation column design. The equilibrium curve relates vapor and liquid compositions at each stage, while operating lines represent material balances in the rectifying and stripping sections.

\begin{pycode}
# Equilibrium curve (VLE relationship)
x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
y_eq = alpha * x / (1 + (alpha - 1) * x)  # equilibrium curve

# Rectifying section operating line: y = (R/(R+1))*x + xD/(R+1)
slope_rect = R / (R + 1)
intercept_rect = xD / (R + 1)
y_rect = slope_rect * x + intercept_rect

# Feed line (q-line): y = (q/(q-1))*x - xF/(q-1)
slope_feed = q / (q - 1)
intercept_feed = -xF / (q - 1)
y_feed = slope_feed * x + intercept_feed

# Stripping section operating line
# Find intersection of rectifying line and feed line
x_intersect = (intercept_feed - intercept_rect) / (slope_rect - slope_feed)
y_intersect = slope_rect * x_intersect + intercept_rect

# Stripping line passes through (xB, xB) and intersection point
slope_strip = (y_intersect - xB) / (x_intersect - xB)
y_strip = slope_strip * (x - xB) + xB

# Count theoretical stages
N_stages = 8  # theoretical stages from stepping

fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 8))
ax.plot(x, y_eq, 'b-', linewidth=2.5, label='Equilibrium Curve')
ax.plot(x, x, 'k--', linewidth=1, label='$y = x$ (Reference)')
ax.plot(x, y_rect, 'r-', linewidth=2, label=f'Rectifying Line ($R={R}$)')
ax.plot(x, y_feed, 'g-', linewidth=2, label='Feed Line ($q={:.1f}$)'.format(q))
ax.plot(x, y_strip, 'm-', linewidth=2, label='Stripping Line')

# Mark key points
ax.plot(xD, xD, 'ro', markersize=8, label='Distillate')
ax.plot(xF, xF, 'go', markersize=8, label='Feed')
ax.plot(xB, xB, 'mo', markersize=8, label='Bottoms')

ax.set_xlabel(r'Liquid Mole Fraction, $x$ (light component)', fontsize=12)
ax.set_ylabel(r'Vapor Mole Fraction, $y$ (light component)', fontsize=12)
ax.set_title(r'McCabe-Thiele Diagram for Binary Distillation ($\\alpha = {:.1f}$)'.format(alpha), fontsize=14)
ax.legend(loc='upper left', fontsize=10)
ax.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
ax.set_xlim(0, 1)
ax.set_ylim(0, 1)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('separation_processes_plot1.pdf', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
plt.close()
\end{pycode}

\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.95\textwidth]{separation_processes_plot1.pdf}
\caption{McCabe-Thiele diagram showing equilibrium curve, operating lines for rectifying and stripping sections, and feed line for binary distillation. The diagram determines theoretical stages required to achieve desired separation from bottoms composition $x_B = \py{xB}$ to distillate $x_D = \py{xD}$ at reflux ratio $R = \py{R}$ and relative volatility $\alpha = \py{alpha}$.}
\end{figure}

\section{Minimum Reflux and Theoretical Stages}

The minimum reflux ratio represents the limiting condition where an infinite number of stages would be required. The Underwood equation and pinch point analysis determine this minimum value. We also calculate the minimum number of stages using the Fenske equation.

\begin{pycode}
# Minimum reflux ratio calculation (pinch point at feed)
# At minimum reflux, operating line touches equilibrium curve at feed point
y_eq_feed = alpha * xF / (1 + (alpha - 1) * xF)
R_min = (xD - y_eq_feed) / (y_eq_feed - xF)

# Minimum stages (Fenske equation) - total reflux
N_min = np.log((xD/(1-xD)) * ((1-xB)/xB)) / np.log(alpha)

# Reflux ratio range for analysis
R_range = np.linspace(R_min, 5*R_min, 50)
N_stages_est = N_min + (R_range - R_min) / (R_range + 1) * 10  # simplified correlation

# Stage stepping with actual reflux ratio
# Step off stages between equilibrium and operating lines
x_stages = [xD]
y_stages = [xD]
x_current = xD
y_current = xD

for i in range(15):  # maximum 15 stages
    # Horizontal step to equilibrium curve
    y_current = y_current  # vapor composition stays same
    # Solve for x on equilibrium curve: y = alpha*x/(1+(alpha-1)*x)
    x_current = y_current / (alpha - (alpha - 1) * y_current)
    x_stages.append(x_current)
    y_stages.append(y_current)

    if x_current <= xB:
        break

    # Vertical step to operating line
    if x_current > x_intersect:
        # Rectifying section
        y_current = slope_rect * x_current + intercept_rect
    else:
        # Stripping section
        y_current = slope_strip * x_current + xB
    x_stages.append(x_current)
    y_stages.append(y_current)

    if y_current <= xB:
        break

actual_stages = len(x_stages) // 2

fig, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(14, 6))

# Left: Stage stepping visualization
ax1.plot(x, y_eq, 'b-', linewidth=2.5, label='Equilibrium')
ax1.plot(x, x, 'k--', linewidth=1)
ax1.plot(x, y_rect, 'r-', linewidth=2, label=f'Rectifying ($R={R}$)')
ax1.plot(x, y_strip, 'm-', linewidth=2, label='Stripping')
ax1.plot(x_stages, y_stages, 'g-', linewidth=1.5, alpha=0.7, label=f'Stage Steps (N={actual_stages})')
ax1.plot(xD, xD, 'ro', markersize=8)
ax1.plot(xB, xB, 'mo', markersize=8)
ax1.set_xlabel(r'Liquid Mole Fraction, $x$', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_ylabel(r'Vapor Mole Fraction, $y$', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_title('Theoretical Stage Counting', fontsize=13)
ax1.legend(fontsize=9)
ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
ax1.set_xlim(0, 1)
ax1.set_ylim(0, 1)

# Right: Reflux ratio vs stages
ax2.plot(R_range, N_stages_est, 'b-', linewidth=2.5)
ax2.axhline(y=N_min, color='r', linestyle='--', linewidth=2, label=f'$N_{{min}}$ = {N_min:.2f}')
ax2.axvline(x=R_min, color='g', linestyle='--', linewidth=2, label=f'$R_{{min}}$ = {R_min:.3f}')
ax2.plot(R, actual_stages, 'ro', markersize=10, label=f'Operating Point (R={R}, N={actual_stages})')
ax2.set_xlabel(r'Reflux Ratio, $R$', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_ylabel(r'Number of Theoretical Stages, $N$', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_title('Reflux Ratio vs. Theoretical Stages', fontsize=13)
ax2.legend(fontsize=10)
ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('separation_processes_plot2.pdf', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
plt.close()
\end{pycode}

\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.98\textwidth]{separation_processes_plot2.pdf}
\caption{Left: McCabe-Thiele stage stepping showing \py{actual_stages} theoretical stages required at reflux ratio $R = \py{R}$. Right: Relationship between reflux ratio and number of stages, showing minimum reflux $R_{min} = \py{f"{R_min:.3f}"}$ from Underwood equation and minimum stages $N_{min} = \py{f"{N_min:.2f}"}$ from Fenske equation at total reflux.}
\end{figure}

\section{Relative Volatility Effect on Separation}

The relative volatility $\alpha$ determines the ease of separation. Higher volatility creates greater separation between the equilibrium curve and the diagonal, reducing the number of theoretical stages required. We analyze how changes in $\alpha$ affect the equilibrium curve and stage requirements.

\begin{pycode}
# Relative volatility sensitivity
alpha_values = [1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0]
colors = ['#1f77b4', '#ff7f0e', '#2ca02c', '#d62728', '#9467bd']

fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(11, 8))

# Plot equilibrium curves for different alpha values
x_eq = np.linspace(0, 1, 200)
for alpha_i, color in zip(alpha_values, colors):
    y_eq_i = alpha_i * x_eq / (1 + (alpha_i - 1) * x_eq)
    ax.plot(x_eq, y_eq_i, linewidth=2.5, color=color, label=f'$\\alpha = {alpha_i}$')

# Reference diagonal
ax.plot(x_eq, x_eq, 'k--', linewidth=1.5, label='$y = x$')

# Mark specific compositions
ax.axvline(x=xF, color='gray', linestyle=':', linewidth=1.5, alpha=0.5)
ax.text(xF, 0.05, f'Feed\n$x_F={xF}$', ha='center', fontsize=10,
        bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', facecolor='wheat', alpha=0.5))

ax.set_xlabel(r'Liquid Mole Fraction, $x$', fontsize=13)
ax.set_ylabel(r'Vapor Mole Fraction, $y$', fontsize=13)
ax.set_title('Effect of Relative Volatility on Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium', fontsize=14)
ax.legend(loc='upper left', fontsize=11)
ax.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
ax.set_xlim(0, 1)
ax.set_ylim(0, 1)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('separation_processes_plot3.pdf', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
plt.close()

# Calculate minimum stages for each alpha
N_min_values = [np.log((xD/(1-xD)) * ((1-xB)/xB)) / np.log(a) for a in alpha_values]
\end{pycode}

\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.95\textwidth]{separation_processes_plot3.pdf}
\caption{Vapor-liquid equilibrium curves for different relative volatilities ranging from $\alpha = 1.5$ (difficult separation) to $\alpha = 4.0$ (easy separation). Higher relative volatility increases the distance between the equilibrium curve and the $y=x$ diagonal, reducing theoretical stage requirements. At $\alpha = \py{alpha}$, minimum stages $N_{min} = \py{f"{N_min:.2f}"}$ are needed.}
\end{figure}

\section{Flash Distillation}

Flash distillation represents a single-stage separation where feed enters at high pressure and is partially vaporized by reducing pressure. The Rachford-Rice equation determines the vapor fraction at equilibrium. We solve for the fraction vaporized $V$ and resulting compositions.

\begin{pycode}
# Flash distillation - Rachford-Rice equation
# Feed composition (benzene-toluene at xF = 0.5)
z_feed = np.array([xF, 1-xF])  # feed composition [light, heavy]
K_values = np.array([alpha, 1.0])  # equilibrium K-values

# Rachford-Rice equation: f(V) = sum(zi*(Ki-1)/(1+V*(Ki-1))) = 0
def rachford_rice(V, z, K):
    return np.sum(z * (K - 1) / (1 + V * (K - 1)))

# Solve for vapor fraction
V_frac = fsolve(rachford_rice, 0.5, args=(z_feed, K_values))[0]

# Calculate compositions
x_liquid = z_feed / (1 + V_frac * (K_values - 1))
y_vapor = K_values * x_liquid

# Create contour plot showing flash zone
V_range = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
z_range = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
V_mesh, Z_mesh = np.meshgrid(V_range, z_range)

# Calculate liquid composition for each combination
X_mesh = Z_mesh / (1 + V_mesh * (alpha - 1))

fig, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(14, 6))

# Left: Rachford-Rice function
V_plot = np.linspace(0.01, 0.99, 200)
RR_values = [rachford_rice(v, z_feed, K_values) for v in V_plot]
ax1.plot(V_plot, RR_values, 'b-', linewidth=2.5)
ax1.axhline(y=0, color='r', linestyle='--', linewidth=2)
ax1.axvline(x=V_frac, color='g', linestyle='--', linewidth=2,
            label=f'Solution: $V = {V_frac:.3f}$')
ax1.plot(V_frac, 0, 'ro', markersize=10)
ax1.set_xlabel(r'Vapor Fraction, $V$', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_ylabel(r'Rachford-Rice Function, $f(V)$', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_title('Rachford-Rice Equation Solution', fontsize=13)
ax1.legend(fontsize=11)
ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)

# Right: Flash zone contour plot
cs = ax2.contourf(V_mesh, Z_mesh, X_mesh, levels=20, cmap='RdYlBu_r')
cbar = plt.colorbar(cs, ax=ax2)
cbar.set_label(r'Liquid Composition, $x$', fontsize=11)
ax2.plot(V_frac, xF, 'ro', markersize=12, label=f'Operating Point\n$V={V_frac:.3f}$, $z_F={xF}$')
ax2.set_xlabel(r'Vapor Fraction, $V$', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_ylabel(r'Feed Composition, $z$', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_title(r'Flash Separation Zone ($\\alpha = {:.1f}$)'.format(alpha), fontsize=13)
ax2.legend(fontsize=10)
ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3, color='white', linewidth=0.5)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('separation_processes_plot4.pdf', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
plt.close()
\end{pycode}

\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.98\textwidth]{separation_processes_plot4.pdf}
\caption{Flash distillation analysis using Rachford-Rice equation. Left: Solution shows vapor fraction $V = \py{f"{V_frac:.3f}"}$ where function crosses zero. Right: Contour map of liquid composition as function of vapor fraction and feed composition at $\alpha = \py{alpha}$, with operating point yielding liquid $x = \py{f"{x_liquid[0]:.3f}"}$ and vapor $y = \py{f"{y_vapor[0]:.3f}"}$.}
\end{figure}

\section{Membrane Separation Selectivity}

Membrane separation uses selective permeation through a barrier to separate components. The selectivity (separation factor) determines membrane effectiveness. We analyze permeability, selectivity, and concentration profiles for gas separation membranes.

\begin{pycode}
# Membrane separation parameters
P_A = 100  # permeability of component A (Barrer)
P_B = 10   # permeability of component B (Barrer)
selectivity = P_A / P_B  # ideal selectivity

# Feed side composition
y_A_feed = 0.20  # feed mole fraction of A (e.g., O2 in air)
y_B_feed = 1 - y_A_feed

# Pressure ratio
pressure_ratio_range = np.linspace(0.1, 0.9, 100)

# Permeate composition (simplified, no pressure drop)
# x_A_perm / x_B_perm = selectivity * (y_A_feed / y_B_feed) * (p_feed / p_perm)
x_A_permeate = []
stage_cut_range = np.linspace(0.1, 0.5, 50)  # fraction of feed permeated

for theta in stage_cut_range:
    # Simplified model: permeate enrichment
    x_A = y_A_feed * selectivity / (y_A_feed * (selectivity - 1) + 1)
    x_A_permeate.append(x_A)

x_A_permeate = np.array(x_A_permeate)

# Different selectivity values for comparison
selectivity_values = [2, 5, 10, 20, 50]
permeate_enrichment = {}

for sel in selectivity_values:
    x_A = y_A_feed * sel / (y_A_feed * (sel - 1) + 1)
    permeate_enrichment[sel] = x_A

fig, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(14, 6))

# Left: Selectivity effect on permeate composition
sel_range = np.linspace(1, 50, 200)
x_A_vs_sel = [y_A_feed * s / (y_A_feed * (s - 1) + 1) for s in sel_range]

ax1.plot(sel_range, x_A_vs_sel, 'b-', linewidth=2.5)
ax1.axhline(y=y_A_feed, color='r', linestyle='--', linewidth=2,
            label=f'Feed Composition ($y_A = {y_A_feed}$)')
ax1.plot(selectivity, selectivity * y_A_feed / (y_A_feed * (selectivity - 1) + 1),
         'ro', markersize=12, label=f'Operating Point ($\\alpha = {selectivity:.1f}$)')
ax1.set_xlabel(r'Membrane Selectivity, $\\alpha = P_A/P_B$', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_ylabel(r'Permeate Mole Fraction, $x_A$', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_title('Membrane Selectivity Effect', fontsize=13)
ax1.legend(fontsize=10)
ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
ax1.set_xlim(1, 50)
ax1.set_ylim(0, 1)

# Right: Bar chart comparing different selectivities
sel_labels = [str(s) for s in selectivity_values]
enrich_values = [permeate_enrichment[s] for s in selectivity_values]

bars = ax2.bar(sel_labels, enrich_values, color=['#1f77b4', '#ff7f0e', '#2ca02c', '#d62728', '#9467bd'],
               alpha=0.8, edgecolor='black', linewidth=1.5)
ax2.axhline(y=y_A_feed, color='r', linestyle='--', linewidth=2,
            label=f'Feed ($y_A = {y_A_feed}$)')

# Add value labels on bars
for bar, val in zip(bars, enrich_values):
    height = bar.get_height()
    ax2.text(bar.get_x() + bar.get_width()/2., height,
             f'{val:.3f}', ha='center', va='bottom', fontsize=10, fontweight='bold')

ax2.set_xlabel(r'Selectivity, $\\alpha$', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_ylabel(r'Permeate Composition, $x_A$', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_title(f'Separation Performance (Feed $y_A = {y_A_feed}$)', fontsize=13)
ax2.legend(fontsize=10)
ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3, axis='y')
ax2.set_ylim(0, 1)
plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('separation_processes_plot5.pdf', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
plt.close()
\end{pycode}

\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.98\textwidth]{separation_processes_plot5.pdf}
\caption{Membrane separation selectivity analysis for gas permeation. Left: Permeate enrichment increases asymptotically with selectivity $\alpha = P_A/P_B$, showing current system with $\alpha = \py{selectivity:.1f}$ achieving $x_A = \py{f"{permeate_enrichment[10]:.3f}"}$. Right: Comparison of permeate compositions for different membrane selectivities at feed composition $y_A = \py{y_A_feed}$, demonstrating that higher selectivity membranes achieve greater separation efficiency.}
\end{figure}

\section{Distillation Column Dynamics}

Dynamic behavior of distillation columns involves composition changes over time during startup, disturbances, or control actions. We model the transient response of a binary distillation column to feed composition changes and reflux ratio adjustments.

\begin{pycode}
# Dynamic response simulation
t = np.linspace(0, 100, 1000)  # time (minutes)

# Step change in feed composition at t=20
xF_initial = 0.40
xF_final = 0.60
xF_dynamic = np.where(t < 20, xF_initial, xF_final)

# First-order dynamic response of distillate composition
tau1 = 8.0  # time constant for composition response (min)
tau2 = 12.0  # time constant for reflux response (min)

# Distillate composition response to feed change
xD_dynamic = xD + (xF_final - xF_initial) * 0.3 * (1 - np.exp(-(t-20)/tau1)) * (t >= 20)

# Reflux ratio adjustment at t=50
R_step = np.where(t < 50, R, R * 1.2)

# Response to reflux ratio change
xD_control = xD_dynamic - 0.05 * (1 - np.exp(-(t-50)/tau2)) * (t >= 50)

# Bottom composition dynamics
xB_dynamic = xB - (xF_final - xF_initial) * 0.15 * (1 - np.exp(-(t-20)/tau1)) * (t >= 20)

fig, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(2, 1, figsize=(12, 9))

# Top plot: Composition trajectories
ax1.plot(t, xF_dynamic, 'g-', linewidth=2.5, label='Feed Composition $x_F$')
ax1.plot(t, xD_control, 'b-', linewidth=2.5, label='Distillate Composition $x_D$')
ax1.plot(t, xB_dynamic, 'r-', linewidth=2.5, label='Bottoms Composition $x_B$')
ax1.axvline(x=20, color='gray', linestyle='--', linewidth=1.5, alpha=0.5)
ax1.axvline(x=50, color='gray', linestyle='--', linewidth=1.5, alpha=0.5)
ax1.text(20, 0.85, 'Feed\nDisturbance', ha='center', fontsize=10,
         bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', facecolor='wheat', alpha=0.7))
ax1.text(50, 0.85, 'Reflux\nAdjustment', ha='center', fontsize=10,
         bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', facecolor='lightblue', alpha=0.7))
ax1.set_xlabel(r'Time (minutes)', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_ylabel(r'Mole Fraction', fontsize=12)
ax1.set_title('Distillation Column Dynamic Response', fontsize=14)
ax1.legend(loc='right', fontsize=11)
ax1.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
ax1.set_xlim(0, 100)
ax1.set_ylim(0, 1)

# Bottom plot: Reflux ratio and separation efficiency
separation_factor = (xD_control / (1 - xD_control)) / (xB_dynamic / (1 - xB_dynamic))
ax2_twin = ax2.twinx()

line1 = ax2.plot(t, R_step, 'purple', linewidth=2.5, label='Reflux Ratio $R$')
line2 = ax2_twin.plot(t, separation_factor, 'orange', linewidth=2.5, label='Separation Factor')
ax2.axvline(x=20, color='gray', linestyle='--', linewidth=1.5, alpha=0.5)
ax2.axvline(x=50, color='gray', linestyle='--', linewidth=1.5, alpha=0.5)

ax2.set_xlabel(r'Time (minutes)', fontsize=12)
ax2.set_ylabel(r'Reflux Ratio, $R$', fontsize=12, color='purple')
ax2_twin.set_ylabel(r'Separation Factor, $S = (x_D/x_B) \cdot ((1-x_B)/(1-x_D))$',
                    fontsize=11, color='orange')
ax2.tick_params(axis='y', labelcolor='purple')
ax2_twin.tick_params(axis='y', labelcolor='orange')
ax2.set_title('Process Variables and Separation Performance', fontsize=13)

# Combine legends
lines = line1 + line2
labels = [l.get_label() for l in lines]
ax2.legend(lines, labels, loc='right', fontsize=11)
ax2.grid(True, alpha=0.3)
ax2.set_xlim(0, 100)

plt.tight_layout()
plt.savefig('separation_processes_plot6.pdf', dpi=150, bbox_inches='tight')
plt.close()

# Calculate steady-state values
final_xD = xD_control[-1]
final_xB = xB_dynamic[-1]
final_sep_factor = separation_factor[-1]
\end{pycode}

\begin{figure}[H]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.98\textwidth]{separation_processes_plot6.pdf}
\caption{Dynamic response of binary distillation column to process disturbances. Top: Composition trajectories showing feed disturbance at $t=20$ min causing transient deviations, followed by reflux adjustment at $t=50$ min to restore product purity. Bottom: Reflux ratio manipulation and resulting separation factor evolution. System reaches new steady state with final distillate $x_D = \py{f"{final_xD:.4f}"}$ and bottoms $x_B = \py{f"{final_xB:.4f}"}$, achieving separation factor $S = \py{f"{final_sep_factor:.2f}"}$.}
\end{figure}

\section{Results Summary}

\begin{pycode}
results = [
    ['Relative Volatility, $\\alpha$', f'{alpha:.2f}'],
    ['Reflux Ratio, $R$', f'{R:.2f}'],
    ['Minimum Reflux, $R_{min}$', f'{R_min:.3f}'],
    ['Minimum Stages, $N_{min}$', f'{N_min:.2f}'],
    ['Actual Stages, $N$', f'{actual_stages}'],
    ['Feed Composition, $x_F$', f'{xF:.2f}'],
    ['Distillate Composition, $x_D$', f'{xD:.2f}'],
    ['Bottoms Composition, $x_B$', f'{xB:.2f}'],
    ['Flash Vapor Fraction, $V$', f'{V_frac:.3f}'],
    ['Membrane Selectivity, $P_A/P_B$', f'{selectivity:.1f}'],
]

print(r'\\begin{table}[H]')
print(r'\\centering')
print(r'\\caption{Separation Process Design Parameters and Results}')
print(r'\\begin{tabular}{@{}lc@{}}')
print(r'\\toprule')
print(r'Parameter & Value \\\\')
print(r'\\midrule')
for row in results:
    print(f"{row[0]} & {row[1]} \\\\\\\\")
print(r'\\bottomrule')
print(r'\\end{tabular}')
print(r'\\end{table}')
\end{pycode}

\section{Conclusions}

This comprehensive analysis demonstrates computational methods for separation process design across multiple unit operations. The McCabe-Thiele graphical method successfully determined \py{actual_stages} theoretical stages for binary distillation at reflux ratio $R = \py{R}$, separating a feed with composition $x_F = \py{xF}$ to achieve distillate purity $x_D = \py{xD}$ and bottoms $x_B = \py{xB}$ for a system with relative volatility $\alpha = \py{alpha}$.

Analysis of minimum operating conditions revealed minimum reflux $R_{min} = \py{f"{R_min:.3f}"}$ from the Underwood equation and minimum stages $N_{min} = \py{f"{N_min:.2f}"}$ from the Fenske equation, providing design boundaries for column operation. The operating reflux ratio $R = \py{R}$ was selected at \py{f"{(R/R_min):.2f}"} times minimum reflux, balancing capital costs (stages) against operating costs (reflux).

Flash distillation calculations using the Rachford-Rice equation determined vapor fraction $V = \py{f"{V_frac:.3f}"}$ for single-stage separation, demonstrating the trade-off between simplicity and separation efficiency compared to multi-stage distillation. Membrane separation analysis showed that selectivity $\alpha_{mem} = \py{selectivity:.1f}$ achieves permeate enrichment from feed composition $y_A = \py{y_A_feed}$ to $x_A = \py{f"{permeate_enrichment[10]:.3f}"}$, with higher selectivity membranes providing superior separation performance.

Dynamic simulation revealed typical response times for distillation column control, with composition time constants of $\tau_1 = 8$ min for feed disturbances and $\tau_2 = 12$ min for reflux adjustments, essential information for designing feedback control systems. These computational tools provide rigorous foundation for separation equipment design, optimization, and operation across chemical process industries.

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\end{document}