other.py

"""
Other functions
"""
from sage.symbolic.function import GinacFunction, BuiltinFunction
from sage.symbolic.expression import Expression
from sage.symbolic.pynac import register_symbol, symbol_table
from sage.symbolic.pynac import py_factorial_py
from sage.symbolic.all import SR
from sage.rings.all import Integer, Rational, RealField, RR, ComplexField
from sage.rings.complex_number import is_ComplexNumber
from sage.misc.latex import latex
import math

import sage.structure.element
coercion_model = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()

# avoid name conflicts with `parent` as a function parameter
from sage.structure.coerce import parent as s_parent

from sage.symbolic.constants import pi
from sage.symbolic.function import is_inexact
from sage.functions.log import exp
from sage.functions.trig import arctan2
from sage.functions.exp_integral import Ei
from sage.libs.mpmath import utils as mpmath_utils

one_half = ~SR(2)

class Function_erf(BuiltinFunction):
    r"""
    The error function, defined for real values as

    `\text{erf}(x) = \frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}} \int_0^x e^{-t^2} dt`.

    This function is also defined for complex values, via analytic
    continuation.


    EXAMPLES:

    We can evaluate numerically::

        sage: erf(2)
        erf(2)
        sage: erf(2).n()
        0.995322265018953
        sage: erf(2).n(100)
        0.99532226501895273416206925637
        sage: erf(ComplexField(100)(2+3j))
        -20.829461427614568389103088452 + 8.6873182714701631444280787545*I

    Basic symbolic properties are handled by Sage and Maxima::

        sage: x = var("x")
        sage: diff(erf(x),x)
        2*e^(-x^2)/sqrt(pi)
        sage: integrate(erf(x),x)
        x*erf(x) + e^(-x^2)/sqrt(pi)

    ALGORITHM:

    Sage implements numerical evaluation of the error function via the
    ``erf()`` function from mpmath. Symbolics are handled by Sage and Maxima.

    REFERENCES:

    - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function
    - http://mpmath.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/doc/build/functions/expintegrals.html#error-functions

    TESTS:

    Check limits::

        sage: limit(erf(x),x=0)
        0
        sage: limit(erf(x),x=infinity)
        1

     Check that it's odd::

         sage: erf(1.0)
         0.842700792949715
         sage: erf(-1.0)
         -0.842700792949715

    Check against other implementations and against the definition::

        sage: erf(3).n()
        0.999977909503001
        sage: maxima.erf(3).n()
        0.999977909503001
        sage: (1-pari(3).erfc())
        0.999977909503001
        sage: RR(3).erf()
        0.999977909503001
        sage: (integrate(exp(-x**2),(x,0,3))*2/sqrt(pi)).n()
        0.999977909503001

    :trac:`9044`::

        sage: N(erf(sqrt(2)),200)
        0.95449973610364158559943472566693312505644755259664313203267

    :trac:`11626`::

        sage: n(erf(2),100)
        0.99532226501895273416206925637
        sage: erf(2).n(100)
        0.99532226501895273416206925637

    Test (indirectly) :trac:`11885`::

        sage: erf(float(0.5))
        0.5204998778130465
        sage: erf(complex(0.5))
        (0.5204998778130465+0j)

    Ensure conversion from maxima elements works::

        sage: merf = maxima(erf(x)).sage().operator()
        sage: merf == erf
        True

    Make sure we can dump and load it::

        sage: loads(dumps(erf(2)))
        erf(2)

    Special-case 0 for immediate evaluation::

        sage: erf(0)
        0
        sage: solve(erf(x)==0,x)
        [x == 0]

    Make sure that we can hold::

        sage: erf(0,hold=True)
        erf(0)
        sage: simplify(erf(0,hold=True))
        0

    Check that high-precision ComplexField inputs work::

        sage: CC(erf(ComplexField(1000)(2+3j)))
        -20.8294614276146 + 8.68731827147016*I
    """

    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        See docstring for :meth:`Function_erf`.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: erf(2)
            erf(2)
        """
        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, "erf", latex_name=r"\text{erf}")

    def _eval_(self, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES:

        Input is not an expression but is exact::

            sage: erf(0)
            0
            sage: erf(1)
            erf(1)

        Input is not an expression and is not exact::

            sage: erf(0.0)
            0.000000000000000

        Input is an expression but not a trivial zero::

            sage: erf(x)
            erf(x)

        Input is an expression which is trivially zero::

            sage: erf(SR(0))
            0
        """
        if not isinstance(x, Expression):
            if is_inexact(x):
                return self._evalf_(x, parent=s_parent(x))
            elif x == Integer(0):
                return Integer(0)
        elif x.is_trivial_zero():
            return x
        return None

    def _evalf_(self, x, parent):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: erf(2).n()
            0.995322265018953
            sage: erf(2).n(200)
            0.99532226501895273416206925636725292861089179704006007673835
            sage: erf(pi - 1/2*I).n(100)
            1.0000111669099367825726058952 + 1.6332655417638522934072124547e-6*I

        TESTS:

        Check that PARI/GP through the GP interface gives the same answer::

            sage: gp.set_real_precision(59)  # random
            38
            sage: print gp.eval("1 - erfc(1)"); print erf(1).n(200);
            0.84270079294971486934122063508260925929606699796630290845994
            0.84270079294971486934122063508260925929606699796630290845994

        Check that for an imaginary input, the output is also imaginary, see
        :trac:`13193`::

            sage: erf(3.0*I)
            1629.99462260157*I
            sage: erf(33.0*I)
            1.51286977510409e471*I
        """
        R = parent or s_parent(x)
        import mpmath
        return mpmath_utils.call(mpmath.erf, x, parent=R)

    def _derivative_(self, x, diff_param=None):
        """
        Derivative of erf function

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: erf(x).diff(x)
            2*e^(-x^2)/sqrt(pi)

        TESTS:

        Check if #8568 is fixed::

            sage: var('c,x')
            (c, x)
            sage: derivative(erf(c*x),x)
            2*c*e^(-c^2*x^2)/sqrt(pi)
            sage: erf(c*x).diff(x)._maxima_init_()
            '((%pi)^(-1/2))*(c)*(exp(((c)^(2))*((x)^(2))*(-1)))*(2)'
        """
        return 2*exp(-x**2)/sqrt(pi)

erf = Function_erf()

class Function_abs(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The absolute value function.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: var('x y')
            (x, y)
            sage: abs(x)
            abs(x)
            sage: abs(x^2 + y^2)
            abs(x^2 + y^2)
            sage: abs(-2)
            2
            sage: sqrt(x^2)
            sqrt(x^2)
            sage: abs(sqrt(x))
            abs(sqrt(x))
            sage: complex(abs(3*I))
            (3+0j)

            sage: f = sage.functions.other.Function_abs()
            sage: latex(f)
            \mathrm{abs}
            sage: latex(abs(x))
            {\left| x \right|}

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(abs(x)))
            abs(x)
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "abs", latex_name=r"\mathrm{abs}")

abs = abs_symbolic = Function_abs()

class Function_ceil(BuiltinFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The ceiling function.

        The ceiling of `x` is computed in the following manner.


        #. The ``x.ceil()`` method is called and returned if it
           is there. If it is not, then Sage checks if `x` is one of
           Python's native numeric data types. If so, then it calls and
           returns ``Integer(int(math.ceil(x)))``.

        #. Sage tries to convert `x` into a
           ``RealIntervalField`` with 53 bits of precision. Next,
           the ceilings of the endpoints are computed. If they are the same,
           then that value is returned. Otherwise, the precision of the
           ``RealIntervalField`` is increased until they do match
           up or it reaches ``maximum_bits`` of precision.

        #. If none of the above work, Sage returns a
           ``Expression`` object.


        EXAMPLES::

            sage: a = ceil(2/5 + x)
            sage: a
            ceil(x + 2/5)
            sage: a(x=4)
            5
            sage: a(x=4.0)
            5
            sage: ZZ(a(x=3))
            4
            sage: a = ceil(x^3 + x + 5/2); a
            ceil(x^3 + x + 5/2)
            sage: a.simplify()
            ceil(x^3 + x + 1/2) + 2
            sage: a(x=2)
            13

        ::

            sage: ceil(sin(8)/sin(2))
            2

        ::

            sage: ceil(5.4)
            6
            sage: type(ceil(5.4))
            <type 'sage.rings.integer.Integer'>

        ::

            sage: ceil(factorial(50)/exp(1))
            11188719610782480504630258070757734324011354208865721592720336801
            sage: ceil(SR(10^50 + 10^(-50)))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001
            sage: ceil(SR(10^50 - 10^(-50)))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

            sage: ceil(sec(e))
            -1

            sage: latex(ceil(x))
            \left \lceil x \right \rceil

        ::

            sage: import numpy
            sage: a = numpy.linspace(0,2,6)
            sage: ceil(a)
            array([ 0.,  1.,  1.,  2.,  2.,  2.])

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(ceil))
            ceil
        """
        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, "ceil",
                                   conversions=dict(maxima='ceiling'))

    def _print_latex_(self, x):
        r"""
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: latex(ceil(x)) # indirect doctest
            \left \lceil x \right \rceil
        """
        return r"\left \lceil %s \right \rceil"%latex(x)

    #FIXME: this should be moved to _eval_
    def __call__(self, x, maximum_bits=20000):
        """
        Allows an object of this class to behave like a function. If
        ``ceil`` is an instance of this class, we can do ``ceil(n)`` to get
        the ceiling of ``n``.

        TESTS::

            sage: ceil(SR(10^50 + 10^(-50)))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001
            sage: ceil(SR(10^50 - 10^(-50)))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
            sage: ceil(int(10^50))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
        """
        try:
            return x.ceil()
        except AttributeError:
            if isinstance(x, (int, long)):
                return Integer(x)
            elif isinstance(x, (float, complex)):
                return Integer(int(math.ceil(x)))
            elif type(x).__module__ == 'numpy':
                import numpy
                return numpy.ceil(x)

        x_original = x

        from sage.rings.all import RealIntervalField
        # If x can be coerced into a real interval, then we should
        # try increasing the number of bits of precision until
        # we get the ceiling at each of the endpoints is the same.
        # The precision will continue to be increased up to maximum_bits
        # of precision at which point it will raise a value error.
        bits = 53
        try:
            x_interval = RealIntervalField(bits)(x)
            upper_ceil = x_interval.upper().ceil()
            lower_ceil = x_interval.lower().ceil()

            while upper_ceil != lower_ceil and bits < maximum_bits:
                bits += 100
                x_interval = RealIntervalField(bits)(x)
                upper_ceil = x_interval.upper().ceil()
                lower_ceil = x_interval.lower().ceil()

            if bits < maximum_bits:
                return lower_ceil
            else:
                try:
                    return ceil(SR(x).full_simplify().simplify_radical())
                except ValueError:
                    pass
                raise ValueError, "x (= %s) requires more than %s bits of precision to compute its ceiling"%(x, maximum_bits)

        except TypeError:
            # If x cannot be coerced into a RealField, then
            # it should be left as a symbolic expression.
            return BuiltinFunction.__call__(self, SR(x_original))

    def _eval_(self, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: ceil(x).subs(x==7.5)
            8
            sage: ceil(x)
            ceil(x)
        """
        try:
            return x.ceil()
        except AttributeError:
            if isinstance(x, (int, long)):
                return Integer(x)
            elif isinstance(x, (float, complex)):
                return Integer(int(math.ceil(x)))
        return None

ceil = Function_ceil()


class Function_floor(BuiltinFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The floor function.

        The floor of `x` is computed in the following manner.


        #. The ``x.floor()`` method is called and returned if
           it is there. If it is not, then Sage checks if `x` is one
           of Python's native numeric data types. If so, then it calls and
           returns ``Integer(int(math.floor(x)))``.

        #. Sage tries to convert `x` into a
           ``RealIntervalField`` with 53 bits of precision. Next,
           the floors of the endpoints are computed. If they are the same,
           then that value is returned. Otherwise, the precision of the
           ``RealIntervalField`` is increased until they do match
           up or it reaches ``maximum_bits`` of precision.

        #. If none of the above work, Sage returns a
           symbolic ``Expression`` object.


        EXAMPLES::

            sage: floor(5.4)
            5
            sage: type(floor(5.4))
            <type 'sage.rings.integer.Integer'>
            sage: var('x')
            x
            sage: a = floor(5.4 + x); a
            floor(x + 5.40000000000000)
            sage: a.simplify()
            floor(x + 0.4) + 5
            sage: a(x=2)
            7

        ::

            sage: floor(cos(8)/cos(2))
            0

        ::

            sage: floor(factorial(50)/exp(1))
            11188719610782480504630258070757734324011354208865721592720336800
            sage: floor(SR(10^50 + 10^(-50)))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
            sage: floor(SR(10^50 - 10^(-50)))
            99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
            sage: floor(int(10^50))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

        ::

            sage: import numpy
            sage: a = numpy.linspace(0,2,6)
            sage: floor(a)
            array([ 0.,  0.,  0.,  1.,  1.,  2.])

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(floor))
            floor
        """
        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, "floor")

    def _print_latex_(self, x):
        r"""
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: latex(floor(x))
            \left \lfloor x \right \rfloor
        """
        return r"\left \lfloor %s \right \rfloor"%latex(x)

    #FIXME: this should be moved to _eval_
    def __call__(self, x, maximum_bits=20000):
        """
        Allows an object of this class to behave like a function. If
        ``floor`` is an instance of this class, we can do ``floor(n)`` to
        obtain the floor of ``n``.

        TESTS::

            sage: floor(SR(10^50 + 10^(-50)))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
            sage: floor(SR(10^50 - 10^(-50)))
            99999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
            sage: floor(int(10^50))
            100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
        """
        try:
            return x.floor()
        except AttributeError:
            if isinstance(x, (int, long)):
                return Integer(x)
            elif isinstance(x, (float, complex)):
                return Integer(int(math.floor(x)))
            elif type(x).__module__ == 'numpy':
                import numpy
                return numpy.floor(x)

        x_original = x

        from sage.rings.all import RealIntervalField

        # If x can be coerced into a real interval, then we should
        # try increasing the number of bits of precision until
        # we get the floor at each of the endpoints is the same.
        # The precision will continue to be increased up to maximum_bits
        # of precision at which point it will raise a value error.
        bits = 53
        try:
            x_interval = RealIntervalField(bits)(x)
            upper_floor = x_interval.upper().floor()
            lower_floor = x_interval.lower().floor()

            while upper_floor != lower_floor and bits < maximum_bits:
                bits += 100
                x_interval = RealIntervalField(bits)(x)
                upper_floor = x_interval.upper().floor()
                lower_floor = x_interval.lower().floor()

            if bits < maximum_bits:
                return lower_floor
            else:
                try:
                    return floor(SR(x).full_simplify().simplify_radical())
                except ValueError:
                    pass
                raise ValueError, "x (= %s) requires more than %s bits of precision to compute its floor"%(x, maximum_bits)

        except TypeError:
            # If x cannot be coerced into a RealField, then
            # it should be left as a symbolic expression.
            return BuiltinFunction.__call__(self, SR(x_original))

    def _eval_(self, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: floor(x).subs(x==7.5)
            7
            sage: floor(x)
            floor(x)
        """
        try:
            return x.floor()
        except AttributeError:
            if isinstance(x, (int, long)):
                return Integer(x)
            elif isinstance(x, (float, complex)):
                return Integer(int(math.floor(x)))
        return None

floor = Function_floor()

class Function_gamma(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The Gamma function.  This is defined by

        .. math::

            \Gamma(z) = \int_0^\infty t^{z-1}e^{-t} dt

        for complex input `z` with real part greater than zero, and by
        analytic continuation on the rest of the complex plane (except
        for negative integers, which are poles).

        It is computed by various libraries within Sage, depending on
        the input type.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: from sage.functions.other import gamma1
            sage: gamma1(CDF(0.5,14))
            -4.05370307804e-10 - 5.77329983455e-10*I
            sage: gamma1(CDF(I))
            -0.154949828302 - 0.498015668118*I

        Recall that `\Gamma(n)` is `n-1` factorial::

            sage: gamma1(11) == factorial(10)
            True
            sage: gamma1(6)
            120
            sage: gamma1(1/2)
            sqrt(pi)
            sage: gamma1(-1)
            Infinity
            sage: gamma1(I)
            gamma(I)
            sage: gamma1(x/2)(x=5)
            3/4*sqrt(pi)

            sage: gamma1(float(6))
            120.0
            sage: gamma1(x)
            gamma(x)

        ::

            sage: gamma1(pi)
            gamma(pi)
            sage: gamma1(i)
            gamma(I)
            sage: gamma1(i).n()
            -0.154949828301811 - 0.498015668118356*I
            sage: gamma1(int(5))
            24

        ::

            sage: conjugate(gamma(x))
            gamma(conjugate(x))

        ::

            sage: plot(gamma1(x),(x,1,5))

        To prevent automatic evaluation use the ``hold`` argument::

            sage: gamma1(1/2,hold=True)
            gamma(1/2)

        To then evaluate again, we currently must use Maxima via
        :meth:`sage.symbolic.expression.Expression.simplify`::

            sage: gamma1(1/2,hold=True).simplify()
            sqrt(pi)

        TESTS:

        We verify that we can convert this function to Maxima and
        convert back to Sage::

            sage: z = var('z')
            sage: maxima(gamma1(z)).sage()
            gamma(z)
            sage: latex(gamma1(z))
            \Gamma\left(z\right)

        Test that Trac ticket 5556 is fixed::

            sage: gamma1(3/4)
            gamma(3/4)

            sage: gamma1(3/4).n(100)
            1.2254167024651776451290983034

        Check that negative integer input works::

            sage: (-1).gamma()
            Infinity
            sage: (-1.).gamma()
            NaN
            sage: CC(-1).gamma()
            Infinity
            sage: RDF(-1).gamma()
            NaN
            sage: CDF(-1).gamma()
            Infinity

        Check if #8297 is fixed::

            sage: latex(gamma(1/4))
            \Gamma\left(\frac{1}{4}\right)

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(gamma(x)))
            gamma(x)
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "gamma", latex_name=r'\Gamma',
                ginac_name='tgamma',
                conversions={'mathematica':'Gamma','maple':'GAMMA'})

    def __call__(self, x, prec=None, coerce=True, hold=False):
        """
        Note that the ``prec`` argument is deprecated. The precision for
        the result is deduced from the precision of the input. Convert
        the input to a higher precision explicitly if a result with higher
        precision is desired.::

            sage: t = gamma(RealField(100)(2.5)); t
            1.3293403881791370204736256125
            sage: t.prec()
            100

            sage: gamma(6, prec=53)
            doctest:...: DeprecationWarning: The prec keyword argument is deprecated. Explicitly set the precision of the input, for example gamma(RealField(300)(1)), or use the prec argument to .n() for exact inputs, e.g., gamma(1).n(300), instead.
            See http://trac.sagemath.org/7490 for details.
            120.000000000000

        TESTS::

            sage: gamma(pi,prec=100)
            2.2880377953400324179595889091

            sage: gamma(3/4,prec=100)
            1.2254167024651776451290983034
        """
        if prec is not None:
            from sage.misc.superseded import deprecation
            deprecation(7490, "The prec keyword argument is deprecated. Explicitly set the precision of the input, for example gamma(RealField(300)(1)), or use the prec argument to .n() for exact inputs, e.g., gamma(1).n(300), instead.")
            import mpmath
            return mpmath_utils.call(mpmath.gamma, x, prec=prec)

        # this is a kludge to keep
        #     sage: Q.<i> = NumberField(x^2+1)
        #     sage: gamma(i)
        # working, since number field elements cannot be coerced into SR
        # without specifying an explicit embedding into CC any more
        try:
            res = GinacFunction.__call__(self, x, coerce=coerce, hold=hold)
        except TypeError, err:
            # the __call__() method returns a TypeError for fast float arguments
            # as well, we only proceed if the error message says that
            # the arguments cannot be coerced to SR
            if not str(err).startswith("cannot coerce"):
                raise

            from sage.misc.superseded import deprecation
            deprecation(7490, "Calling symbolic functions with arguments that cannot be coerced into symbolic expressions is deprecated.")
            parent = RR if prec is None else RealField(prec)
            try:
                x = parent(x)
            except (ValueError, TypeError):
                x = parent.complex_field()(x)
            res = GinacFunction.__call__(self, x, coerce=coerce, hold=hold)

        return res

gamma1 = Function_gamma()

class Function_log_gamma(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The principal branch of the logarithm of Gamma function.
        Gamma is defined for complex input `z` with real part greater
        than zero, and by analytic continuation on the rest of the
        complex plane (except for negative integers, which are poles).

        It is computed by the `log_gamma` function for the number type,
        or by `lgamma` in Ginac, failing that.

        EXAMPLES:

        Numerical evaluation happens when appropriate, to the
        appropriate accuracy (see #10072)::

            sage: log_gamma(6)
            log(120)
            sage: log_gamma(6.)
            4.78749174278205
            sage: log_gamma(6).n()
            4.78749174278205
            sage: log_gamma(RealField(100)(6))
            4.7874917427820459942477009345
            sage: log_gamma(2.4+i)
            -0.0308566579348816 + 0.693427705955790*I
            sage: log_gamma(-3.1)
            0.400311696703985

        Symbolic input works (see #10075)::

            sage: log_gamma(3*x)
            log_gamma(3*x)
            sage: log_gamma(3+i)
            log_gamma(I + 3)
            sage: log_gamma(3+i+x)
            log_gamma(x + I + 3)

        To get evaluation of input for which gamma
        is negative and the ceiling is even, we must
        explicitly make the input complex.  This is
        a known issue, see #12521::

            sage: log_gamma(-2.1)
            NaN
            sage: log_gamma(CC(-2.1))
            1.53171380819509 + 3.14159265358979*I

        In order to prevent evaluation, use the `hold` argument;
        to evaluate a held expression, use the `n()` numerical
        evaluation method::

            sage: log_gamma(SR(5),hold=True)
            log_gamma(5)
            sage: log_gamma(SR(5),hold=True).n()
            3.17805383034795

        TESTS::

            sage: log_gamma(-2.1+i)
            -1.90373724496982 - 0.901638463592247*I
            sage: log_gamma(pari(6))
            4.78749174278205
            sage: log_gamma(CC(6))
            4.78749174278205
            sage: log_gamma(CC(-2.5))
            -0.0562437164976740 + 3.14159265358979*I

        ``conjugate(log_gamma(x))==log_gamma(conjugate(x))`` unless on the branch
        cut, which runs along the negative real axis.::

            sage: conjugate(log_gamma(x))
            conjugate(log_gamma(x))
            sage: var('y', domain='positive')
            y
            sage: conjugate(log_gamma(y))
            log_gamma(y)
            sage: conjugate(log_gamma(y+I))
            conjugate(log_gamma(y + I))
            sage: log_gamma(-2)
            +Infinity
            sage: conjugate(log_gamma(-2))
            +Infinity
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "log_gamma", latex_name=r'\log\Gamma',
                conversions={'mathematica':'LogGamma','maxima':'log_gamma'})

log_gamma = Function_log_gamma()

class Function_gamma_inc(BuiltinFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The incomplete gamma function.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: gamma_inc(CDF(0,1), 3)
            0.00320857499337 + 0.0124061858119*I
            sage: gamma_inc(RDF(1), 3)
            0.0497870683679
            sage: gamma_inc(3,2)
            gamma(3, 2)
            sage: gamma_inc(x,0)
            gamma(x)
            sage: latex(gamma_inc(3,2))
            \Gamma\left(3, 2\right)
            sage: loads(dumps((gamma_inc(3,2))))
            gamma(3, 2)
            sage: i = ComplexField(30).0; gamma_inc(2, 1 + i)
            0.70709210 - 0.42035364*I
            sage: gamma_inc(2., 5)
            0.0404276819945128
        """
        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, "gamma", nargs=2, latex_name=r"\Gamma",
                conversions={'maxima':'gamma_incomplete', 'mathematica':'Gamma',
                    'maple':'GAMMA'})

    def _eval_(self, x, y):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: gamma_inc(2.,0)
            1.00000000000000
            sage: gamma_inc(2,0)
            1
            sage: gamma_inc(1/2,2)
            -sqrt(pi)*(erf(sqrt(2)) - 1)
            sage: gamma_inc(1/2,1)
            -sqrt(pi)*(erf(1) - 1)
            sage: gamma_inc(1/2,0)
            sqrt(pi)
            sage: gamma_inc(x,0)
            gamma(x)
            sage: gamma_inc(1,2)
            e^(-2)
            sage: gamma_inc(0,2)
            -Ei(-2)
        """
        if not isinstance(x, Expression) and not isinstance(y, Expression) and \
               (is_inexact(x) or is_inexact(y)):
            x, y = coercion_model.canonical_coercion(x, y)
            return self._evalf_(x, y, s_parent(x))

        if y == 0:
            return gamma(x)
        if x == 1:
            return exp(-y)
        if x == 0:
            return -Ei(-y)
        if x == Rational(1)/2: #only for x>0
            return sqrt(pi)*(1-erf(sqrt(y)))
        return None

    def _evalf_(self, x, y, parent=None):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: gamma_inc(0,2)
            -Ei(-2)
            sage: gamma_inc(0,2.)
            0.0489005107080611
            sage: gamma_inc(3,2).n()
            1.35335283236613
        """
        try:
            return x.gamma_inc(y)
        except AttributeError:
            if not (is_ComplexNumber(x)):
                if is_ComplexNumber(y):
                    C = y.parent()
                else:
                    C = ComplexField()
                    x = C(x)
            return x.gamma_inc(y)

# synonym.
incomplete_gamma = gamma_inc=Function_gamma_inc()

def gamma(a, *args, **kwds):
    r"""
    Gamma and incomplete gamma functions.
    This is defined by the integral

    .. math::

        \Gamma(a, z) = \int_z^\infty t^{a-1}e^{-t} dt

    EXAMPLES::

        Recall that `\Gamma(n)` is `n-1` factorial::

            sage: gamma(11) == factorial(10)
            True
            sage: gamma(6)
            120
            sage: gamma(1/2)
            sqrt(pi)
            sage: gamma(-4/3)
            gamma(-4/3)
            sage: gamma(-1)
            Infinity
            sage: gamma(0)
            Infinity

        ::

            sage: gamma_inc(3,2)
            gamma(3, 2)
            sage: gamma_inc(x,0)
            gamma(x)

        ::

            sage: gamma(5, hold=True)
            gamma(5)
            sage: gamma(x, 0, hold=True)
            gamma(x, 0)

        ::

            sage: gamma(CDF(0.5,14))
            -4.05370307804e-10 - 5.77329983455e-10*I
            sage: gamma(CDF(I))
            -0.154949828302 - 0.498015668118*I

        The gamma function only works with input that can be coerced to the
        Symbolic Ring::

            sage: Q.<i> = NumberField(x^2+1)
            sage: gamma(i)
            doctest:...: DeprecationWarning: Calling symbolic functions with arguments that cannot be coerced into symbolic expressions is deprecated.
            See http://trac.sagemath.org/7490 for details.
            -0.154949828301811 - 0.498015668118356*I

        We make an exception for elements of AA or QQbar, which cannot be
        coerced into symbolic expressions to allow this usage::

            sage: t = QQbar(sqrt(2)) + sqrt(3); t
            3.146264369941973?
            sage: t.parent()
            Algebraic Field

        Symbolic functions convert the arguments to symbolic expressions if they
        are in QQbar or AA::

            sage: gamma(QQbar(I))
            -0.154949828301811 - 0.498015668118356*I
    """
    if not args:
        return gamma1(a, **kwds)
    if len(args) > 1:
        raise TypeError, "Symbolic function gamma takes at most 2 arguments (%s given)"%(len(args)+1)
    return incomplete_gamma(a,args[0],**kwds)

# We have to add the wrapper function manually to the symbol_table when we have
# two functions with different number of arguments and the same name
symbol_table['functions']['gamma'] = gamma

class Function_psi1(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The digamma function, `\psi(x)`, is the logarithmic derivative of the
        gamma function.

        .. math::

            \psi(x) = \frac{d}{dx} \log(\Gamma(x)) = \frac{\Gamma'(x)}{\Gamma(x)}

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: from sage.functions.other import psi1
            sage: psi1(x)
            psi(x)
            sage: psi1(x).derivative(x)
            psi(1, x)

        ::

            sage: psi1(3)
            -euler_gamma + 3/2

        ::

            sage: psi(.5)
            -1.96351002602142
            sage: psi(RealField(100)(.5))
            -1.9635100260214234794409763330

        TESTS::

            sage: latex(psi1(x))
            \psi\left(x\right)
            sage: loads(dumps(psi1(x)+1))
            psi(x) + 1

            sage: t = psi1(x); t
            psi(x)
            sage: t.subs(x=.2)
            -5.28903989659219
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "psi", nargs=1, latex_name='\psi',
                conversions=dict(maxima='psi[0]', mathematica='PolyGamma'))

class Function_psi2(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Derivatives of the digamma function `\psi(x)`. T

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: from sage.functions.other import psi2
            sage: psi2(2, x)
            psi(2, x)
            sage: psi2(2, x).derivative(x)
            psi(3, x)
            sage: n = var('n')
            sage: psi2(n, x).derivative(x)
            psi(n + 1, x)

        ::

            sage: psi2(0, x)
            psi(x)
            sage: psi2(-1, x)
            log(gamma(x))
            sage: psi2(3, 1)
            1/15*pi^4

        ::

            sage: psi2(2, .5).n()
            -16.8287966442343
            sage: psi2(2, .5).n(100)
            -16.828796644234319995596334261

        Tests::

            sage: psi2(n, x).derivative(n)
            Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
            RuntimeError: cannot diff psi(n,x) with respect to n

            sage: latex(psi2(2,x))
            \psi\left(2, x\right)
            sage: loads(dumps(psi2(2,x)+1))
            psi(2, x) + 1
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "psi", nargs=2, latex_name='\psi',
                conversions=dict(mathematica='PolyGamma'))

    def _maxima_init_evaled_(self, n, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES:

        These are indirect doctests for this function.::

            sage: from sage.functions.other import psi2
            sage: psi2(2, x)._maxima_()
            psi[2](x)
            sage: psi2(4, x)._maxima_()
            psi[4](x)
        """
        return "psi[%s](%s)"%(n, x)

psi1 = Function_psi1()
psi2 = Function_psi2()

def psi(x, *args, **kwds):
    r"""
    The digamma function, `\psi(x)`, is the logarithmic derivative of the
    gamma function.

    .. math::

        \psi(x) = \frac{d}{dx} \log(\Gamma(x)) = \frac{\Gamma'(x)}{\Gamma(x)}

    We represent the `n`-th derivative of the digamma function with
    `\psi(n, x)` or `psi(n, x)`.

    EXAMPLES::

        sage: psi(x)
        psi(x)
        sage: psi(.5)
        -1.96351002602142
        sage: psi(3)
        -euler_gamma + 3/2
        sage: psi(1, 5)
        1/6*pi^2 - 205/144
        sage: psi(1, x)
        psi(1, x)
        sage: psi(1, x).derivative(x)
        psi(2, x)

    ::

        sage: psi(3, hold=True)
        psi(3)
        sage: psi(1, 5, hold=True)
        psi(1, 5)

    TESTS::

        sage: psi(2, x, 3)
        Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
        TypeError: Symbolic function psi takes at most 2 arguments (3 given)
    """
    if not args:
        return psi1(x, **kwds)
    if len(args) > 1:
        raise TypeError, "Symbolic function psi takes at most 2 arguments (%s given)"%(len(args)+1)
    return psi2(x,args[0],**kwds)

# We have to add the wrapper function manually to the symbol_table when we have
# two functions with different number of arguments and the same name
symbol_table['functions']['psi'] = psi

class Function_factorial(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Returns the factorial of `n`.

        INPUT:

        -  ``n`` - any complex argument (except negative
           integers) or any symbolic expression


        OUTPUT: an integer or symbolic expression

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: x = var('x')
            sage: factorial(0)
            1
            sage: factorial(4)
            24
            sage: factorial(10)
            3628800
            sage: factorial(6) == 6*5*4*3*2
            True
            sage: f = factorial(x + factorial(x)); f
            factorial(x + factorial(x))
            sage: f(x=3)
            362880
            sage: factorial(x)^2
            factorial(x)^2

        To prevent automatic evaluation use the ``hold`` argument::

            sage: factorial(5,hold=True)
            factorial(5)

        To then evaluate again, we currently must use Maxima via
        :meth:`sage.symbolic.expression.Expression.simplify`::

            sage: factorial(5,hold=True).simplify()
            120

        We can also give input other than nonnegative integers.  For
        other nonnegative numbers, the :func:`gamma` function is used::

            sage: factorial(1/2)
            1/2*sqrt(pi)
            sage: factorial(3/4)
            gamma(7/4)
            sage: factorial(2.3)
            2.68343738195577

        But negative input always fails::

            sage: factorial(-32)
            Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
            ValueError: factorial -- self = (-32) must be nonnegative

        TESTS:

        We verify that we can convert this function to Maxima and
        bring it back into Sage.::

            sage: z = var('z')
            sage: factorial._maxima_init_()
            'factorial'
            sage: maxima(factorial(z))
            factorial(z)
            sage: _.sage()
            factorial(z)
            sage: k = var('k')
            sage: factorial(k)
            factorial(k)

            sage: factorial(3.14)
            7.173269190187...

        Test latex typesetting::

            sage: latex(factorial(x))
            x!
            sage: latex(factorial(2*x))
            \left(2 \, x\right)!
            sage: latex(factorial(sin(x)))
            \sin\left(x\right)!
            sage: latex(factorial(sqrt(x+1)))
            \left(\sqrt{x + 1}\right)!
            sage: latex(factorial(sqrt(x)))
            \sqrt{x}!
            sage: latex(factorial(x^(2/3)))
            \left(x^{\frac{2}{3}}\right)!

            sage: latex(factorial)
            {\rm factorial}

        Check that #11539 is fixed::

            sage: (factorial(x) == 0).simplify()
            factorial(x) == 0
            sage: maxima(factorial(x) == 0).sage()
            factorial(x) == 0
            sage: y = var('y')
            sage: (factorial(x) == y).solve(x)
            [factorial(x) == y]

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(factorial))
            factorial
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "factorial", latex_name='{\\rm factorial}',
                conversions=dict(maxima='factorial', mathematica='Factorial'))

    def _eval_(self, x):
        """
        Evaluate the factorial function.

        Note that this method overrides the eval method defined in GiNaC
        which calls numeric evaluation on all numeric input. We preserve
        exact results if the input is a rational number.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: k = var('k')
            sage: k.factorial()
            factorial(k)
            sage: SR(1/2).factorial()
            1/2*sqrt(pi)
            sage: SR(3/4).factorial()
            gamma(7/4)
            sage: SR(5).factorial()
            120
            sage: SR(3245908723049857203948572398475r).factorial()
            factorial(3245908723049857203948572398475L)
            sage: SR(3245908723049857203948572398475).factorial()
            factorial(3245908723049857203948572398475)
        """
        if isinstance(x, Rational):
            return gamma(x+1)
        elif isinstance(x, (Integer, int)) or \
                (not isinstance(x, Expression) and is_inexact(x)):
            return py_factorial_py(x)

        return None

factorial = Function_factorial()

class Function_binomial(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Return the binomial coefficient

        .. math::

            \binom{x}{m} = x (x-1) \cdots (x-m+1) / m!


        which is defined for `m \in \ZZ` and any
        `x`. We extend this definition to include cases when
        `x-m` is an integer but `m` is not by

        .. math::

            \binom{x}{m}= \binom{x}{x-m}

        If `m < 0`, return `0`.

        INPUT:

        -  ``x``, ``m`` - numbers or symbolic expressions. Either ``m``
           or ``x-m`` must be an integer, else the output is symbolic.

        OUTPUT: number or symbolic expression (if input is symbolic)

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: binomial(5,2)
            10
            sage: binomial(2,0)
            1
            sage: binomial(1/2, 0)
            1
            sage: binomial(3,-1)
            0
            sage: binomial(20,10)
            184756
            sage: binomial(-2, 5)
            -6
            sage: binomial(RealField()('2.5'), 2)
            1.87500000000000
            sage: n=var('n'); binomial(n,2)
            1/2*(n - 1)*n
            sage: n=var('n'); binomial(n,n)
            1
            sage: n=var('n'); binomial(n,n-1)
            n
            sage: binomial(2^100, 2^100)
            1

        ::

            sage: k, i = var('k,i')
            sage: binomial(k,i)
            binomial(k, i)

        We can use a ``hold`` parameter to prevent automatic evaluation,
        but only using method notation::

            sage: SR(5).binomial(3, hold=True)
            binomial(5, 3)
            sage: SR(5).binomial(3, hold=True).simplify()
            10

        TESTS: We verify that we can convert this function to Maxima and
        bring it back into Sage.

        ::

            sage: n,k = var('n,k')
            sage: maxima(binomial(n,k))
            binomial(n,k)
            sage: _.sage()
            binomial(n, k)
            sage: sage.functions.other.binomial._maxima_init_() # temporary workaround until we can get symbolic binomial to import in global namespace, if that's desired
            'binomial'

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(binomial(n,k)))
            binomial(n, k)
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "binomial", nargs=2,
                conversions=dict(maxima='binomial', mathematica='Binomial'))

binomial = Function_binomial()

class Function_beta(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Return the beta function.  This is defined by

        .. math::

            B(p,q) = \int_0^1 t^{p-1}(1-t)^{1-q} dt

        for complex or symbolic input `p` and `q`.
        Note that the order of inputs does not matter:  `B(p,q)=B(q,p)`.

        GiNaC is used to compute `B(p,q)`.  However, complex inputs
        are not yet handled in general.  When GiNaC raises an error on
        such inputs, we raise a NotImplementedError.

        If either input is 1, GiNaC returns the reciprocal of the
        other.  In other cases, GiNaC uses one of the following
        formulas:

        .. math::

            B(p,q) = \Gamma(p)\Gamma(q)/\Gamma(p+q)

        or

        .. math::

            B(p,q) = (-1)^q B(1-p-q, q).


        For numerical inputs, GiNaC uses the formula

        .. math::

            B(p,q) =  \exp[\log\Gamma(p)+\log\Gamma(q)-\log\Gamma(p+q)]


        INPUT:

        -  ``p`` - number or symbolic expression

        -  ``q`` - number or symbolic expression


        OUTPUT: number or symbolic expression (if input is symbolic)

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: beta(3,2)
            1/12
            sage: beta(3,1)
            1/3
            sage: beta(1/2,1/2)
            beta(1/2, 1/2)
            sage: beta(-1,1)
            -1
            sage: beta(-1/2,-1/2)
            0
            sage: beta(x/2,3)
            beta(3, 1/2*x)
            sage: beta(.5,.5)
            3.14159265358979
            sage: beta(1,2.0+I)
            0.400000000000000 - 0.200000000000000*I
            sage: beta(3,x+I)
            beta(3, x + I)

        Note that the order of arguments does not matter::

            sage: beta(1/2,3*x)
            beta(1/2, 3*x)

        The result is symbolic if exact input is given::

            sage: beta(2,1+5*I)
            beta(2, 5*I + 1)
            sage: beta(2, 2.)
            0.166666666666667
            sage: beta(I, 2.)
            -0.500000000000000 - 0.500000000000000*I
            sage: beta(2., 2)
            0.166666666666667
            sage: beta(2., I)
            -0.500000000000000 - 0.500000000000000*I

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(beta))
            beta
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "beta", nargs=2,
                conversions=dict(maxima='beta', mathematica='Beta'))

beta = Function_beta()

def _do_sqrt(x, prec=None, extend=True, all=False):
        r"""
        Used internally to compute the square root of x.

        INPUT:

        -  ``x`` - a number

        -  ``prec`` - None (default) or a positive integer
           (bits of precision) If not None, then compute the square root
           numerically to prec bits of precision.

        -  ``extend`` - bool (default: True); this is a place
           holder, and is always ignored since in the symbolic ring everything
           has a square root.

        -  ``extend`` - bool (default: True); whether to extend
           the base ring to find roots. The extend parameter is ignored if
           prec is a positive integer.

        -  ``all`` - bool (default: False); whether to return
           a list of all the square roots of x.


        EXAMPLES::

            sage: from sage.functions.other import _do_sqrt
            sage: _do_sqrt(3)
            sqrt(3)
            sage: _do_sqrt(3,prec=10)
            1.7
            sage: _do_sqrt(3,prec=100)
            1.7320508075688772935274463415
            sage: _do_sqrt(3,all=True)
            [sqrt(3), -sqrt(3)]

        Note that the extend parameter is ignored in the symbolic ring::

            sage: _do_sqrt(3,extend=False)
            sqrt(3)
        """
        from sage.rings.all import RealField, ComplexField
        if prec:
            if x >= 0:
                 return RealField(prec)(x).sqrt(all=all)
            else:
                 return ComplexField(prec)(x).sqrt(all=all)
        if x == -1:
            from sage.symbolic.pynac import I
            z = I
        else:
            z = SR(x) ** one_half

        if all:
            if z:
                return [z, -z]
            else:
                return [z]
        return z

def sqrt(x, *args, **kwds):
        r"""
        INPUT:

        -  ``x`` - a number

        -  ``prec`` - integer (default: None): if None, returns
           an exact square root; otherwise returns a numerical square root if
           necessary, to the given bits of precision.

        -  ``extend`` - bool (default: True); this is a place
           holder, and is always ignored or passed to the sqrt function for x,
           since in the symbolic ring everything has a square root.

        -  ``all`` - bool (default: False); if True, return all
           square roots of self, instead of just one.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: sqrt(-1)
            I
            sage: sqrt(2)
            sqrt(2)
            sage: sqrt(2)^2
            2
            sage: sqrt(4)
            2
            sage: sqrt(4,all=True)
            [2, -2]
            sage: sqrt(x^2)
            sqrt(x^2)
            sage: sqrt(2).n()
            1.41421356237310

        To prevent automatic evaluation, one can use the ``hold`` parameter
        after coercing to the symbolic ring::

            sage: sqrt(SR(4),hold=True)
            sqrt(4)
            sage: sqrt(4,hold=True)
            Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
            TypeError: _do_sqrt() got an unexpected keyword argument 'hold'

        This illustrates that the bug reported in #6171 has been fixed::

            sage: a = 1.1
            sage: a.sqrt(prec=100)  # this is supposed to fail
            Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
            TypeError: sqrt() got an unexpected keyword argument 'prec'
            sage: sqrt(a, prec=100)
            1.0488088481701515469914535137
            sage: sqrt(4.00, prec=250)
            2.0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

        One can use numpy input as well::

            sage: import numpy
            sage: a = numpy.arange(2,5)
            sage: sqrt(a)
            array([ 1.41421356,  1.73205081,  2.        ])
        """
        if isinstance(x, float):
            return math.sqrt(x)
        elif type(x).__module__ == 'numpy':
            from numpy import sqrt
            return sqrt(x)
        try:
            return x.sqrt(*args, **kwds)
        # The following includes TypeError to catch cases where sqrt
        # is called with a "prec" keyword, for example, but the sqrt
        # method for x doesn't accept such a keyword.
        except (AttributeError, TypeError):
            pass
        return _do_sqrt(x, *args, **kwds)

# register sqrt in pynac symbol_table for conversion back from other systems
register_symbol(sqrt, dict(mathematica='Sqrt'))
symbol_table['functions']['sqrt'] = sqrt

Function_sqrt = type('deprecated_sqrt', (),
        {'__call__': staticmethod(sqrt),
            '__setstate__': lambda x, y: None})

class Function_arg(BuiltinFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        The argument function for complex numbers.

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: arg(3+i)
            arctan(1/3)
            sage: arg(-1+i)
            3/4*pi
            sage: arg(2+2*i)
            1/4*pi
            sage: arg(2+x)
            arg(x + 2)
            sage: arg(2.0+i+x)
            arg(x + 2.00000000000000 + 1.00000000000000*I)
            sage: arg(-3)
            pi
            sage: arg(3)
            0
            sage: arg(0)
            0
            sage: latex(arg(x))
            {\rm arg}\left(x\right)
            sage: maxima(arg(x))
            atan2(0,x)
            sage: maxima(arg(2+i))
            atan(1/2)
            sage: maxima(arg(sqrt(2)+i))
            atan(1/sqrt(2))
            sage: arg(2+i)
            arctan(1/2)
            sage: arg(sqrt(2)+i)
            arg(sqrt(2) + I)
            sage: arg(sqrt(2)+i).simplify()
            arctan(1/2*sqrt(2))

        TESTS::

            sage: arg(0.0)
            0.000000000000000
            sage: arg(3.0)
            0.000000000000000
            sage: arg(-2.5)
            3.14159265358979
            sage: arg(2.0+3*i)
            0.982793723247329
        """
        BuiltinFunction.__init__(self, "arg",
                conversions=dict(maxima='carg', mathematica='Arg'))

    def _eval_(self, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: arg(3+i)
            arctan(1/3)
            sage: arg(-1+i)
            3/4*pi
            sage: arg(2+2*i)
            1/4*pi
            sage: arg(2+x)
            arg(x + 2)
            sage: arg(2.0+i+x)
            arg(x + 2.00000000000000 + 1.00000000000000*I)
            sage: arg(-3)
            pi
            sage: arg(3)
            0
            sage: arg(0)
            0
            sage: arg(sqrt(2)+i)
            arg(sqrt(2) + I)

        """
        if not isinstance(x,Expression): # x contains no variables
            if s_parent(x)(0)==x: #compatibility with maxima
                return s_parent(x)(0)
            else:
                if is_inexact(x): # inexact complex numbers, e.g. 2.0+i
                    return self._evalf_(x, s_parent(x))
                else:  # exact complex numbers, e.g. 2+i
                    return arctan2(imag_part(x),real_part(x))
        else:
            # x contains variables, e.g. 2+i+y or 2.0+i+y
            # or x involves an expression such as sqrt(2)
            return None

    def _evalf_(self, x, parent_d=None):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: arg(0.0)
            0.000000000000000
            sage: arg(3.0)
            0.000000000000000
            sage: arg(3.00000000000000000000000000)
            0.00000000000000000000000000
            sage: arg(3.00000000000000000000000000).prec()
            90
            sage: arg(ComplexIntervalField(90)(3)).prec()
            90
            sage: arg(ComplexIntervalField(90)(3)).parent()
            Real Interval Field with 90 bits of precision
            sage: arg(3.0r)
            0.0
            sage: arg(RDF(3))
            0.0
            sage: arg(RDF(3)).parent()
            Real Double Field
            sage: arg(-2.5)
            3.14159265358979
            sage: arg(2.0+3*i)
            0.982793723247329
        """
        try:
            return x.arg()
        except AttributeError:
            pass
        # try to find a parent that support .arg()
        if parent_d is None:
            parent_d = s_parent(x)
        try:
            parent_d = parent_d.complex_field()
        except AttributeError:
            from sage.rings.complex_field import ComplexField
            try:
                parent_d = ComplexField(x.prec())
            except AttributeError:
                parent_d = ComplexField()

        return parent_d(x).arg()

arg=Function_arg()


############################
# Real and Imaginary Parts #
############################
class Function_real_part(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Returns the real part of the (possibly complex) input.

        It is possible to prevent automatic evaluation using the
        ``hold`` parameter::

            sage: real_part(I,hold=True)
            real_part(I)

        To then evaluate again, we currently must use Maxima via
        :meth:`sage.symbolic.expression.Expression.simplify`::

            sage: real_part(I,hold=True).simplify()
            0

        EXAMPLES::

            sage: z = 1+2*I
            sage: real(z)
            1
            sage: real(5/3)
            5/3
            sage: a = 2.5
            sage: real(a)
            2.50000000000000
            sage: type(real(a))
            <type 'sage.rings.real_mpfr.RealLiteral'>
            sage: real(1.0r)
            1.0
            sage: real(complex(3, 4))
            3.0

        TESTS::

            sage: loads(dumps(real_part))
            real_part

        Check if #6401 is fixed::

            sage: latex(x.real())
            \Re \left( x \right)

            sage: f(x) = function('f',x)
            sage: latex( f(x).real())
            \Re \left( f\left(x\right) \right)
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "real_part",
                                   conversions=dict(maxima='realpart'))

    def __call__(self, x, **kwargs):
        r"""
        TESTS::

            sage: type(real(complex(3, 4)))
            <type 'float'>
        """
        if isinstance(x, complex):
            return x.real
        else:
            return GinacFunction.__call__(self, x, **kwargs)

    def _eval_numpy_(self, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: import numpy
            sage: a = numpy.array([1+2*I, -2-3*I], dtype=numpy.complex)
            sage: real_part(a)
            array([ 1., -2.])
        """
        import numpy
        return numpy.real(x)

real = real_part = Function_real_part()

class Function_imag_part(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Returns the imaginary part of the (possibly complex) input.

        It is possible to prevent automatic evaluation using the
        ``hold`` parameter::

            sage: imag_part(I,hold=True)
            imag_part(I)

        To then evaluate again, we currently must use Maxima via
        :meth:`sage.symbolic.expression.Expression.simplify`::

            sage: imag_part(I,hold=True).simplify()
            1

        TESTS::

            sage: z = 1+2*I
            sage: imaginary(z)
            2
            sage: imag(z)
            2
            sage: imag(complex(3, 4))
            4.0
            sage: loads(dumps(imag_part))
            imag_part

        Check if #6401 is fixed::

            sage: latex(x.imag())
            \Im \left( x \right)

            sage: f(x) = function('f',x)
            sage: latex( f(x).imag())
            \Im \left( f\left(x\right) \right)
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "imag_part",
                                   conversions=dict(maxima='imagpart'))

    def __call__(self, x, **kwargs):
        r"""
        TESTS::

            sage: type(imag(complex(3, 4)))
            <type 'float'>
        """
        if isinstance(x, complex):
            return x.imag
        else:
            return GinacFunction.__call__(self, x, **kwargs)

    def _eval_numpy_(self, x):
        """
        EXAMPLES::

            sage: import numpy
            sage: a = numpy.array([1+2*I, -2-3*I], dtype=numpy.complex)
            sage: imag_part(a)
            array([ 2., -3.])
        """
        import numpy
        return numpy.imag(x)

imag = imag_part = imaginary = Function_imag_part()


############################
# Complex Conjugate        #
############################
class Function_conjugate(GinacFunction):
    def __init__(self):
        r"""
        Returns the complex conjugate of the input.

        It is possible to prevent automatic evaluation using the
        ``hold`` parameter::

            sage: conjugate(I,hold=True)
            conjugate(I)

        To then evaluate again, we currently must use Maxima via
        :meth:`sage.symbolic.expression.Expression.simplify`::

            sage: conjugate(I,hold=True).simplify()
            -I

        TESTS::

            sage: x,y = var('x,y')
            sage: x.conjugate()
            conjugate(x)
            sage: latex(conjugate(x))
            \overline{x}
            sage: f = function('f')
            sage: latex(f(x).conjugate())
            \overline{f\left(x\right)}
            sage: f = function('psi',x,y)
            sage: latex(f.conjugate())
            \overline{\psi\left(x, y\right)}
            sage: x.conjugate().conjugate()
            x
            sage: x.conjugate().operator()
            conjugate
            sage: x.conjugate().operator() == conjugate
            True

        Check if #8755 is fixed::

            sage: conjugate(sqrt(-3))
            conjugate(sqrt(-3))
            sage: conjugate(sqrt(3))
            sqrt(3)
            sage: conjugate(sqrt(x))
            conjugate(sqrt(x))
            sage: conjugate(x^2)
            conjugate(x)^2
            sage: var('y',domain='positive')
            y
            sage: conjugate(sqrt(y))
            sqrt(y)

        Check if #10964 is fixed::

            sage: z= I*sqrt(-3); z
            I*sqrt(-3)
            sage: conjugate(z)
            -I*conjugate(sqrt(-3))
            sage: var('a')
            a
            sage: conjugate(a*sqrt(-2)*sqrt(-3))
            conjugate(sqrt(-2))*conjugate(sqrt(-3))*conjugate(a)

        Test pickling::

            sage: loads(dumps(conjugate))
            conjugate
        """
        GinacFunction.__init__(self, "conjugate")

conjugate = Function_conjugate()